10th-15th Century Egyptian Blackwork Pattern

There is an Egyptian textile fragment at the Ashmolean Museum with interlacing chevrons and Maltese crosses circa 10th-15th century, which can be seen here.

Here is the fragment:

(Ashmolean Museum)



And here is my interpretation of part of the embroidery pattern:

More Egyptian Embroidery Patterns from the Mamluk Time Period

Here is the original embroidered linen, currently located at the V&A Museum.

The museum describes this textile piece as "silk on linen, 1250-1516, Egyptian; Mamluk. El-Azam. Tree and bird motifs". 

At the very bottom of the linen is a small embroidered pattern. Here is my interpretation of that pattern:

Then, there appears to be chicken-like birds on this linen. Here is my interpretation of one of the birds:

Underneath the birds, there is a diamond pattern. Here is my interpretation of that pattern:

Did Pre-15th Century Egyptians Influence 16th and 17th Century Western European Blackwork Embroidery

Pre-15^th century Egyptian Muslims influenced 16^th and 17^th century western European fashion through blackwork embroidery. Over the centuries, blackwork has also been referred to as Holbein stitch, backstitch, Spanish work, festoon stitch, square stitch, or double-running stitch. For the purpose of this paper, these embroideries will all be referred to as blackwork, since it is the same type of embroidery with various names attached to it. This specific type of embroidery is recognizable because it is usually made with silk thread embroidered on linen fabric using a double-running stitch. A double-running stitch means that the thread is woven in and out from one side of the fabric to the other, creating a dashed line. Then, on the return journey, the spaces on the dashed line are filled in by the thread weaving its way back to the starting point. This can create an embroidered look that is reversible.  This double-running stitch was “based on Arabic traditions that dated back centuries but, by the sixteenth century, was popular all over Europe” (Speelberg).

The Egyptian Muslim influence on fashion through blackwork embroidery is evident in paintings, as well as many historical items on display at various museums. “Some of the patterns used on Mamluk textiles eventually spread to Europe and can be seen in 16th-century German and Italian pattern books.” (“Sampler Fragment”) Egyptian double-running stitch embroidery is the ancestor to European blackwork. Both embroideries typically used linen with silk thread, using the Holbein stitch to create their patterns. The pattern designs also had some similarities, but also had their differences as the embroidery catered to different countries and their own individual styles. The fact remains, however, that this style of embroidery was the same.

Pre-15^th century Egyptian double-running stitch embroidery was “done in a counted-thread technique (working over 2-4 threads, but primarily over 2) using a double-running stitch (or a technique with an identical effect) with largely geometric or highly stylized plant and animal motifs built up from horizontal and vertical segments (extremely rarely, diagonal stitches or cross stitches are used).” (H. Jones) When reading this description of Egyptian embroidery, it is identical to the blackwork embroidery made popular in Europe in countries such as England in the 16^th century. This paper will compare and contrast pre-15^th century Egyptian embroidery to 16^th century European blackwork embroidery to prove that Egyptians influenced European fashion through their embroidery.

Blackwork embroidery “had its origins much earlier in Egypt and the Middle East during the 13^th through the 15^th centuries during the Mamluk Sultanate” (Heath). The name Mamluk is Arabic and was used to describe Muslim rulers of slave origin. Toward the end of the 9^th century, these warrior slaves had become an important segment in the military (“Mamluk”). The Mamluks “ruled Egypt and Syria from 1250 until 1517, when their dynasty was extinguished by the Ottomans.” (Waterson) The Mamluks were part of the Muslim states. The Moors and the Mamluks were both Muslim and originated from northern Africa. Their embroidery patterns were related because both groups originated from the same Sultanate. This is supported by the fact that the Mamluk items found share a resemblance to Moorish geometric designs.

Both the Moors and the Mamluks were originally part of the Umayyad Caliphate, which ruled over northern Africa and later the Iberian Peninsula. "The Umayyads ruled the Islamic world from 661 to 750 C.E." (Szczepanski) The Iberian Peninsula is the name for the area of land that includes Spain and Portugal. Before the reign of the new Spanish monarchs Isabella and Ferdinand in the late 15th century, the Moors had ruled much of the Spanish territory. The Moors began the occupation of Spain in 711 AD when an African army, under their leader Tariq ibn-Ziyad, crossed the Strait of Gibraltar from northern Africa and invaded the Iberian peninsula known as 'Andalus'. The Moorish army defeated the Visigoths and the remaining Romans that had been occupying the land. Within a decade of this defeat, Christian Spain was under Islamic domination.

Even after being evicted from Spain, many of the Moorish influences had been left behind. After about 7 centuries of Moorish occupation, it is no wonder that the Moors had heavily influenced Spanish culture. These influences included architecture, textiles, and language. Unfortunately, finding examples of pre-Moorish textiles from Hispania, the name that Spain was known by before the Moorish occupation, has proven to be extremely difficult. “Spanish decorative art over this period can be seen to express the Islamic principle of symmetry, and the use of geometric motifs.” (Geddes and McNeill 14) The Moorish embroidery had been used “to decorate household items such as towels, napkins and cushion covers, as well as garments such as robes and veils” (Heath).

While the Moors were occupying Spain, the Mamluks had been involved in trade with Italy, which began as early as the 13^th century. Trade routes had already existed through Europe for centuries. For example, 9^th and 10^th century clothing in Viking graves in Sweden had materials from Persia and China, with the words ‘Allah’ and ‘Ali’ woven on them (“Why Did Vikings”). As pictured below, Alexandria in Egypt can be seen in the bottom righthand corner. Alexandria was (and is) a major port city dating back to 332 BC. “As late as the 15th century, the city prospered as a transit point in the trade conducted between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean basin.” (Reimer)

It was through trade with Italy and Spain that blackwork embroidery eventually made its way into European fashion, being altered slightly be each culture that adopted it. Each culture added “its own elements of style, design and motifs to suit the local taste” (Heath). Since each culture added its own flare to this embroidery style, that is how some later English embroidery had circular floral patterns on it while German and Spanish embroidery had more geometric designs. It is all the same style of embroidery, though. All of these embroideries are typically done on linen with silk thread to create a reversible pattern.

Besides the style of the patterns, another thing that the various cultures modified as this popular embroidery travelled through Europe was the color choice for the silk embroidery thread. When looking at the pre-15^th century Egyptian embroidery, blue, red, and brown (this could be a faded black) were common embroidery thread colors. The thought of Egypt drums up imagery of deserts and sand. The linen fabric was undyed and therefore an off-white color, which the blue, red, and brown colors would compliment nicely. However, as this embroidery became popular in 16^th century England, people wore clothes to help display their wealth. The whiter their whites, the better and more costly. Black silk thread was a popular choice for this embroidery style, most likely because it was a stark contrast to the white and made their white linen appear more bleached white.

Catherine of Aragon, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, had been born and raised in Spain. At that time, Spain had been majorly influenced by Moorish geometrical designs during the Moorish rule of Spain and Portugal. In 1501, Catherine of Aragon had brought this technique with her to England from her native country, Spain. Catherine of Aragon had grown up learning this geometric embroidery. She continued her embroidery when she was sent to England to marry Henry VIII’s older brother, Arthur. After Arthur’s death, Catherine then married Henry in 1509 and became Queen of England. The technique of blackwork embroidery then became extremely popular in England, as it was worn by the King and Queen of England.

Before Catherine of Aragon became Queen of England and helped to influence the embroidery styles of England, English embroidery looked much different before the Tudor era compared to after the Tudor era. Before Catherine of Aragon, the popular type of embroidery was known as Opus Anglicanum (English work). Opus Anglicanum was popular with the medieval Church and on page 10 is an example of this form of embroidery. Other embroidery styles that had been popular in England before Catherine of Aragon were stem stitch, split stitch, chain stitch, and laid work. These embroidery styles, which are different than the double running stitch as demonstrated on page 2, can all be found in the famous Bayeux Tapestry, made in the late 11th century. On the next page are examples of these different styles of embroidery.

The blackwork embroidery that Catherine made popular was “embroidery in black silk on white linen which became fashionable during the reign of Henry VIII…and dying out some time between 1600 and 1630” (Geddes and McNeill 13). When Catherine of Aragon brought this fashionable embroidery technique to England, it was referred to as ‘Spanysshe work’. It was dubbed this name, though it had shown origins with Moorish design elements. After King Henry VIII divorced Catherine in 1533, the embroidery was re-named ‘blackwork’. By the time King Henry VIII’s second daughter, Elizabeth I, came into reign, blackwork embroidery was popular among both nobility and monarchs.

Shirts were the most common to have blackwork as decoration, especially on the cuffs and around the neck. “As blackwork embroidery patterns resemble lace (which was difficult to obtain in Tudor days, because of a tax on lace) collars and cuffs of blackwork embroidery soon appeared on the courtiers’ clothing.” (Drysdale 10) There are many portraits from the Elizabethan time era of nobility wearing blackwork on the sleeves and cuffs of their shirts and chemises. By 1530, a man’s shirt had a high neck, which had resulted in the origin of the ruff.  Blackwork was used to decorate this ruff. (Cunnington 17) In the National Portrait Gallery, there is a portrait of Henry VIII wearing a shirt embroidered with acorns in gold and leaves in black. “Apart from ruffs, blackwork was highly fashionable on falling-bands, hand-ruffs, handkerchiefs, night-caps, and night-shirts.” (Geddes and McNeill 34)

Blackwork embroidery had become popular in other countries besides England during this same time frame, such as France. “Louis XI and Charles VIII of France were both very interested in embroidery and summoned Italian embroiderers to court, so early French work was much influenced by Italy.” (Snook 13) Blackwork had already made its appearance in French and German portraits at the beginning of the sixteenth century, proving that it was already a general European fashion.  Examples of blackwork embroidery in Scotland have not survived, except for in portraits, such as that of Agnes Keith and her husband, the Regent Moray, painted by Hans Eworth, 1561. (Swain 11) Found among the garments left by Mary Queen of Scots were four English chemises with blackwork designs. Other countries also had blackwork, including Hungary, Yugoslavia, Serbia, and Romania. (Nickels)

In other historical findings, the blackwork design “…occurs on a fragment from a burial ground in Egypt of the late medieval period, and is depicted by Holbein the elder in his paintings…” (Swain 121) The late medieval period was the period of time between 1250 and 1500 AD. Spain and Italy set the way by using Islamic design, as well as absorbing design ideas from Egypt. “Types of counted-thread embroidery in black on white are found in many countries, especially the Slavonic countries of Eastern Europe: Russia, Roumania, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Yugoslavia, where it has been a peasant industry for centuries.”  (Geddes and McNeill 14) Each country took blackwork embroidery and put their own individual twist on it. For example, under Queen Elizabeth I of England, “English design was beginning to emerge as an individual style with delicate flowers, scrolling vines, and strong outlines filled with repetitive patterns.” (Nickels citing Lady M. Alford in Needlework as Art, 1886)

European blackwork in the 16^th and 17^th centuries could have been found on almost any type of fabric: silk, linen, satin, velvet, and netting. Wool may have been used for threading, but black silk was definitely the most favored. Once in a while, gold and silver threads may have been used to demonstrate visual drama. Other colors of thread were used too, but black silk on a white background was the most popular. In addition, pearls and beads may have been used sporadically.  “It has also been suggested that the lavish use of black thread embroidery was occasioned by the influence of the newly-established printing presses. Many of the embroidery designs were close copies of those which were inspired by engravings and woodcuts.” (Jones 32)

There are many different designs used with the blackwork technique.  During Elizabeth I’s reign, many floral designs had been used.  William Shakespeare even described some of these decorations in his works.  In Pericles, Act V, Sc. I, I.5 Shakespeare wrote:

“…with her neeld composes

Nature’s own shape of bud, bird, branch, or berry,

That even her art sisters the natural roses;

Her inkle, silk, twin wit the rubied cherry:

That pupils lacks she none of noble race

Who pour their bounty on her…”

(Kendrick 93)

After this beautiful reversible embroidery was introduced to European countries, it was widely used during the 16^th century before slowly going out of fashion in the 17^th century. Blackwork was used by Europeans to style their coifs, shirts, sleeves, and more. While this embroidery is time-consuming to do, it was cheaper than lace during the Tudor era. Lace had a tax on it during the Tudor era. It was one of many ways for Europeans to display their wealth, as well as being fashionable. It is quite evident that Pre-15^th century Egyptian Muslims influenced 16^th and 17^th century European fashion through blackwork embroidery.

Pre-15^th century Egyptian Muslims influenced 16^th and 17^th century western European fashion through blackwork embroidery. By counting the threads of the linen fabric, the double-running stitch is a series of two ‘journeys’ made with silk thread. On the first journey, the pattern is made with every other stitch. Then, on the return journey, the goal is to fill in the blank spots to create one continuous line. This makes the finished pattern appear reversible. It is amazing to find the predecessor to European blackwork in the Egyptian embroideries from the previous centuries!

Pre-15^th century Egyptian Muslims influenced 16^th and 17^th century western European fashion through blackwork embroidery. Some of the patterns used on 14^th century “Mamluk textiles eventually spread to Europe and can be seen in 16th-century German and Italian pattern books” (“Sampler Fragment”). The numerous examples on the previous pages prove that pre-15^th century Egyptians influenced 16^th and 17^th century western European fashion. The use of silk embroidery on linen fabric is the same. The patterns have similarities. The technique of using a double-running stitch was identical. “In the embroideries of the Mamluk period (1252-1517) the designs are usually angular…This is a running stitch in steps, sometimes called the Holbein stitch.” (Dimand) Pre-15^th century Egyptians influenced 16^th and 17^th century western European fashion through blackwork embroidery.

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